CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. THE ROOTS OF FAMILY VIOLENCE: A HISTORICAL CONTEXT

   Many people think of family violence as a uniquely American phenomenon that has come into being only in recent years. Family violence in other cultures, especially wife beating, is not rare.

   1. Violence Against Women.

      Historically, men have had a legal right to beat their wives. Violence against women has taken other forms in other cultures.

   2. Violence Against Children.

      Is linked to cultural values and attitudes that have defined children as the property of families. Infanticide, the killing of infants and young children, has been widely practiced throughout much of history. Female infanticide is still practiced in countries such as China. Corporal punishment is widely used in the United States today when disciplining children.

   3. Violence Against the Elderly.

      Prior to industrialization, elders controlled the economic resources of the family and were often the target of abuse or violence from children wanting to take control of those resources.

   4. Violence Against Siblings.

      There is little data on sibling violence- many parents feel that sibling conflict is normal behavior.

2. FAMILY VIOLENCE AND UNITED STATES CULTURE

   Statistics from a collection of Uniform Crime Reports indicate that an aggravated assault occurs every 37 seconds, a forcible rape every 6 minutes, and a murder every 26 minutes. It is more likely to be a so-called loved one who assaults, rapes, or murders. Every 5 years, the death toll of persons killed by relatives and acquaintances equals that of the entire Vietnam War. Violence is deeply rooted in American history.

   1. The Media

      Today, violence pervades our popular culture in films, television, music, and video games. All of the violations of women that are presented in our popular culture contribute to what has been called "rape syndrome" or "men's proclivity to rape," the group of factors that collectively characterize men's likelihood to rape.

3. MYTHS ABOUT VIOLENCE AND ABUSE

   Many myths surround the issue of family violence. These myths include:

   1. Family violence is rare, yet violence will occur at least once in two-thirds of all marriages. Approximately 11 percent of all reported assaults are aggravated assaults between husbands and wives. In some states, assaults between spouses constitute as many as one-half of all reported assaults.

   2. Only mentally ill or sick people abuse family members, however, the majority of abusive family members possess none of the symptoms or problems normally associated with people who are mentally ill or are suffering from personality disorders.

   3. Family violence occurs most often in heterosexual, lower-class, and ethic families, but, in fact, it occurs throughout society. Violence has been officially reported more often among lower classes, but an important bias in these data is that they are confined to reported cases. Domestic violence occurs across all sexual orientations as well as across all races and classes.

   4. There is an absence of love in violent families, but, in fact, in spite of the horror of family violence, in most cases, both the victims and the perpetrators of violence say that they love one another.

4. PHYSICAL ASSAULT: THE CASE OF BATTERED WOMEN

   Erin Pizzey's book Scream Quietly or the Neighbors Will Hear made public the fact that vast numbers of women were being physically and emotionally brutalized and they had no place to go for help. Most research fails to provide information regarding race, class, and sexual orientation in battering cases.

   1. What is Woman Battering?

      In general, the pattern of the battering experienced by women is referred to as the "battered-woman syndrome" and is defined in terms of frequency, severity, intent to harm, and the ability to demonstrate injury. Battering is generally cyclical. Lenore Walker has proposed a cycle of violence theory that includes three stages: tension building, acute battering, and loving contrition. Battering can also include verbal and psychological abuse with threats or actual violence toward children and other loved ones.

   2. How Prevalent is Woman Battering?

      Researchers must rely on crime statistics, hospital records, police reports, and self-reports of women. Since 1972, a major source of information on family violence has been the National Crime Survey sponsored by the Department of Justice. Efforts to document female abuse is difficult because it typically occurs in private. Statistics do not accurately reflect the amount of violence experienced in intimate relationships and in the home. A woman's relationship to the abuser is a key variable: Over two-thirds of violent victimizations against women were committed by someone known to them.

   3. Theories of Spousal or Partner Abuse.

      Various scholars have attempted to answer the question of what causes one human to physically, emotionally, or otherwise abuse a person they profess to love. Some of the theories generated include: social stress, power, dependency, and alcohol. Researchers have also noted a number of variables that seem to be conducive to violence in intimate relationships.

   4. Why Do Women Remain in Abusive Relationships?

      "Victim blaming" suggests that women enjoy, provoke, or deserve battering. This is the most pervasive myth. Women often remain in these situations out of fear for themselves, their children, or even that their abusers will kill themselves if they leave. Financial dependence, religious conviction, and love also keep women in abusive relationships.

   5. Confronting Intimate Violence.

      The San Francisco based Family Violence Prevention Fund has conducted a highly successful education campaign designed to prevent and reduce family violence.

5. THE SEXUAL ASSAULT OF WOMEN

   Sexual assault incorporates physical and verbal behavior intended to coerce an individual into sexual activity against her or his will. The most extreme form of sexual assault is rape. Rape is not about sexual arousal; it is about power. Rape is the most frequently committed violent crime in the United States. It is also the least reported of all such crimes. The National Crime Victimization Survey found that in 1996, more than two-thirds of rapes and sexual assaults committed in the nation remain unreported. Age is no barrier to rape, as indicated in one hospital study where those treated for rape ranged from a 15-month-old baby girl to an 82 year-old woman. The majority of rapists are under the age of twenty-five, and their victims are typically white women, also under the age of twenty-five, divorced or separated, poor, and unemployed or a student. Males are at greatest risk of being raped under conditions of incarceration, and they are even less likely than women to report the crime.

   1. Rape Myths.

      A large number of myths surround rape and many people hold numerous erroneous notions about rape.

      1. Rape and Race: Most rapes actually occur within the same race.

      2. Blaming the Victim: The myth that women "ask for" sexual assault by the way they behave and/or dress, and that women secretly desire to be raped by a strong man, continues to exist.

   2. Marital Rape.

      Some research has shown that the closer the association or prior association of the victim and the rapist, the more violent the rape tends to be. Several factors surrounding marital rape have been identified: the historical foundations of marriage in this country, the establishment of marital exemption in rape laws, the socially and economically disadvantaged position of women, and the violent nature of United States society and its "rape culture." While half of the states have eliminated or modified the marital exemption clause to its rape statute allowing prosecution of husbands, 13 states have broadened the exemptions to prevent the prosecution of a man who rapes the woman with whom he is living.

6. THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESPONSE TO WOMAN ASSAULT

   The criminal justice system has largely refused to intervene on women's behalf except when the violence is extremely severe or death has occurred.

   1. Attitudes and Behaviors.

      Many police do not understand the battering syndrome and resent being called again and again to the same violent households. The reactions of police to victims of lesbian and gay violence frequently have ranged from skepticism to outright hostility and violence.

   2. Have We Made Progress?

      There is no clear-cut answer to the question of progress. The answer is both yes and no. However, there are signs of progress: In recent years, the treatment of rape and battered victims has improved somewhat.

7. THE EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL ASSAULT ON WOMEN

   The harm that men inflict on women takes many forms and has a wide range of effects. Research indicates that violent abuse exacts a tremendous toll on women; physically, psychologically, emotionally, and financially.

   1. Coping and Survival Strategies.

      Women have developed a wide range of strategies, both constructive and destructive.

      1. Psychological and Emotional Strategies: Avoidance or prevention of violence through sex, fantasy, and dreams.

      2. Self-Destructive Strategies: Alcohol and drug abuse, overeating, and suicide are all self-destructive strategies used by battered women. Battered women account for 42 percent of all attempted suicides.

      3. Fighting Back: Killing an abuser is the exception rather than the rule, and most women who resort to this are usually convicted of murder and are sentenced to long prison terms. Many victims of violence are also survivors; they are not passive and defeated victims.

   2. Shelters for Battered Women.

      Shelters appear to be successful in helping women break the cycle of violence in at least 50 percent of the cases.

8. A COMPARATIVE LOOK AT BATTERED MEN

   Suzanne Steinmetz was one of the first researchers to call attention to the issue of battered men. Statistics vary because men tend not to report this type of violence. In addition, many acts of violence on the part of women tend to be in response to male violence and much less severe in nature.

9. CHILD ASSAULT AND ABUSE

   In 1962, Hempe and his associates published a national survey that described the battered-child syndrome. The maltreatment of children takes many forms, including physical battering and abuse, child endangerment and neglect, sexual abuse and assault, psychological or emotional abuse, exploitation, murder, children thrown away, child runaways, and child abduction by parents and by strangers. A 1996 report on violent offenders and their victims indicated that 97 percent of offenders who committed violent crimes against children were male; nearly 25 percent were 40 years old or older; and 70 percent were white.

   1. The Physical Assault of Children.

      Because adults have great latitude in terms of methods they may use to discipline children, violence against children must be serious before it is labeled as abuse.

      1. Prevalence: Around 3 million children are abused in the United States each year by parents in the name of discipline. It is estimated that as many as one-third of all abuse and neglect cases go unreported, especially if they involve middle or upper-class families.

      2. Who Are the Abused? Over one-half of all white children are victims of major physical abuse, 27 percent of black children, and 10 percent of Latino children. Certain characteristics predispose a child to being abused. Children born to unmarried parents, premature infants, congenitally malformed or mentally retarded children, twins, and those whose mother is clinically depressed are most vulnerable to abuse.

      3. Who Are the Abusers? In 90 percent of the known cases, the abuser is a member of the immediate family. Official reports of child abuse generally overrepresent poor people and people of color in comparison with their percentages in the larger population.

   2. The Sexual Assault of Children.

      Family sexual abuse is generally referred to as incest. Sexual abuse progresses over time, usually beginning with "trying out" behavior and progressing over time in intensity of abuse.

      1. Prevalence: Official reports of incest severely underestimate its actual occurrence; it has been estimated that between 10 and 20 percent of American children are victims of sexual assault by a parent or parent figure: Ninety percent of these victims are female. Further, it is estimated that 16 percent of women have been sexually abused/assaulted by a relative by the time they are 18 years of age.

      2. The Sexually Abused Child and the Abuser: The typical victim of abuse is female. White children are more likely than either black or Latino children to be sexually assaulted by a family member within the household rather than someone outside the household.

      3. The Effects of Child Abuse: A large percentage of sexually abused children become prostitutes or drug users. Victims are likely to suffer low self-esteem, severe depression, and alcoholism. When they become adults, they often become abusers themselves and/or victims of spousal battering.

10. ELDER ABUSE IN THE UNITED STATES

    Elder abuse has recently gained widespread public attention and has been defined by some people as a major social problem. The greater longevity and visibility of older people have increased our awareness of and sensitivity to the many problems they experience.

    1. What is Elder Abuse?

       The term elder abuse covers a wide range of physical, psychological, and material maltreatment and neglect of older people.

    2. Who Are the Abused and the Abusers?

       Women 75 years of age and older are the most likely victims. The abuser is most often a male spouse who abuses his elderly partner (58 percent), followed by children (28 percent), and then others (14 percent). Among children who abuse, the most frequent offenders are adult daughters.

11. SIBLING ABUSE

    Although sibling violence is seldom discussed, it is perhaps the most common form of family violence. Sibling violence tends to decrease as children get older and spend less time with each other. Like other forms of victimization, sibling abuse involves a number of forms of maltreatment including mental, emotional, and sexual abuse.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading Chapter Eleven, students should be able to:

1. discuss the concept of family violence from historical and cross-cultural perspectives.

2. discuss the prevalence of violence in U.S. culture.

3. identify and refute three common myths about violence and abuse.

4. present a detailed overview of the single major cause of injury to women in the United States: battering.

5. provide several reasons why women choose to remain in abusive relationships.

6. describe in detail the myths as well as the realities of rape in America today.

7. explain the notion that abused women are victimized by the criminal-justice system.

8. list and describe the psychological and behavioral responses of the victim of violent abuse.

9. briefly summarize the current thinking on the nature and incidence of men battering in the United States.

10. discuss in detail all aspects of the battered-child syndrome.

11. briefly summarize the available information on elder abuse and sibling abuse in the United States.

KEY TERMS

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/CLASS EXERCISES

1. There are many people who confront the consequences of domestic violence in a very direct way: emergency room nurses and physicians, police officers, and counselors at spouse abuse shelters. Invite one or more of them into your class in order to discuss their experiences, and to answer students' questions about how they view the family violence problem.

2. Students tend to view spouse abuse in terms of men's generally superior physical prowess rather than in terms of how men have been socialized in American society. The text points out that some studies have shown that women are as likely to direct violence at their husbands as these men are to direct violence at their wives, although women are much more likely than men to be physically injured in the process. Other investigations suggest that the lion's share of family violence perpetrated by women is in response to aggression from their husbands. It is useful for students to think about how women have been taught to avoid aggression, but that men have been socialized to feel that if they are not aggressive, they are not "men." This is a very important ingredient in reference to violence between men and women in intimate situations. Encourage your students to imagine what the family violence scene would be like if women were socialized in similar fashion to men regarding aggression, violence, fighting, etc.

3. Encourage your students to think about the social structural ingredients involved with abuse of elderly people. For example, the fact that more and more elderly people are having to depend upon their adult children for support. Particularly in cases where socioeconomic hardships are involved, these situations are prime for this kind of violent behavior. As is the case with child abuse, and perhaps to a lesser extent, spouse abuse, such behavior is difficult to understand: "How could a child be physically abusive toward his/her mother or father?" Such behaviors are more understandable in light of the frustrating circumstances that characterize abusive situations.

4. Violence in the family is a "hot" topic. Brenda D. Phillips offers a unique approach to teaching about family violence in her article, "Teaching About Family Violence to an At-Risk Population: Insights from Sociological and Feminist Perspectives," which appears in the July, 1988 issue of Teaching Sociology (289-293). Phillips points out that many students who take sociology and family life courses have themselves been victimized by different forms of family violence. The members of your class are likely to be no exception.

5. The outcome of the O.J. Simpson trial has enraged women's rights groups and the leaders of domestic violence groups across the country. Although Mr. Simpson was found not guilty of murdering his ex-wife, most observers seem to accept the fact that he probably physically and emotionally abused her during their marriage. What kind of message did the verdict send to the nation, even if Simpson really is not guilty of murder?

6. America is a child-oriented society. This is, of course, one of the reasons why child abuse, especially of the sexual kind, is regarded as such a heinous offense. On the other hand, children can become equally frustrating to parents as other adults. Adult friends often assault other friends, frequently under the guise of "boys will be boys" or "they're friends, that's why they have fistfights." This double standard of evaluation about physically violent exchanges clouds some of the issues involved in child abuse. Students need to think about this behavior without the emotion that is typical of discussions like this. Encourage them to do so.

FILMS AND VIDEOS

Domestic Violence: Faces of Fear, 1996, 60 min. (PBS Video). This presentation explores intimate violence across a wide variety of groups, including gays, lesbians, teenagers, and the members of various ethnic groups, arguing that violence is not a personal or individual problem, but is rooted in structural causes.

 

Domestic Violence: Which Way Out?, 1993, 27 min. (Filmakers Library). This presentation provides a look at new programs developed by law enforcement agencies for dealing with domestic violence and effectively links violence to American culture.

 

House of Fear: Domestic Violence, 1995, 28 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program looks at the efforts of one city, Nashville, Tennessee, in trying to combat the growing number of domestic-related murders and other forms of domestic violence. The presentation includes actual interviews with victims, members of the law enforcement community, and counselors.

 

Domestic Violence: 'Til Death Do Us Part, 1995, 20 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program focuses on the story of Audrey Stack, a married woman who was the classic victim of domestic violence. Through Ms. Stack's tragic story, the presentation explores how to identify an abusive relationship, the dangers involved, the causes, and why it can be difficult for a victim to leave the relationship.

 

Domestic Violence: Behind Closed Doors, 1994, 28 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program emphasizes that only when communities and families say "Enough" to domestic violence, can the cycle of violence be broken and deals with the social and legal services that can make the difference in attacking the problem.

 

Abused Women Who Fought Back: The Framingham Eight, 1994, 44 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program explores the problem of domestic violence through the dramatic stories of the women who became known as the "Framingham Eight": Each woman was imprisoned in Framingham, Massachusetts for killing a spouse or partner whom they said abused them repeatedly. Each sought to have her sentence commuted, claiming Battered Woman Syndrome as a defense. The presentation evaluates this syndrome using a pro/con approach.

 

Family Violence: Breaking the Chain, 1992, 25 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program looks at the effects of family violence on the abused and the abuser; at the danger that abused children will grow up to repeat the pattern of violence in their own relationships; at the problems of date violence; at the physical and emotional abuse women suffer at the hands of their husbands and lovers. This film is an excellent companion to the text's discussion of prevention and intervention programs.

 

Violence in the Home: Living in Fear, 1989, 30 min. (Insight Media). This presentation exposes the devastating effects of domestic violence and explores the cycle of abuse. The program is particularly effective in targeting the myths and realities surrounding abusive relationships.

 

The Sex Offender Next Door, 1998, 46 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This is a two-part ABC News special that probes the life of a convicted child abuser who is on parole. This program is explicit and may be offensive to some viewers.

 

A Room Full of Men: Therapy for Abusive Men, 1993, 48 min. (Filmakers Library). This documentary explores the reasons why some men are violent toward women and how these behaviors can be changed; the presentation traces the experiences of three men who have abused their partners.

 

To a Safer Place, 1987, 58 min. (Insight Media). This presentation deals with sexual abuse and incest, including how this behavior may be transmitted from generation to generation, and the implications of treatment.

 

Dating Rites: Gang Rape on Campus, 1993, 28 min. (Filmakers Library). This presentation re- enacts how and why gang rape situations occur; the video is also useful in discussions of date rape, acquaintance rape, and similar topics.

 

Child Abuse: Cradle of Violence, 1988, 20 min. (Coronet/MTI/Bonanza Films). This documentary provides a frank discussion of this disturbing topic through a series of interviews with former child abusers. The presentation also discusses the value of self-help groups and community services to help parents cope.

 

Crying in the Dark: Misdiagnosed Child Abuse, 1988, 55 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). The flip side of unreported child abuse is falsely-charged child abuse. This award-winning documentary tells the story of anguished families whose tranquility was shattered and whose very existence was placed into question-the children were removed to community shelters and the parents cast under a cloud of suspicion and revulsion-because of a controversial diagnostic technique used by overzealous medical personnel.