CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. REPRODUCTION AND PARENTING

   Fertility, the actual number of live births in a population, is both a biological and a social phenomenon.

2. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW: FERTILITY TRENDS IN THE UNITED STATES

   Demographers use the term fertility rate to refer to the number of births per 1000 women in their childbearing years (15-44). The total fertility rate (number of children each woman has) was very high in early America. By 1900, the total fertility rate had declined to half that of a century earlier. Explanations include: the transformation of the country from rural-agricultural to urban-industrial, rapid advances in science and technology, and the changing role of women. Between 1946 and 1965, a period called the "baby boom," 74 million babies were born in the United States. Two factors seem to have played a key role: the expanding postwar economy and certain government policies. In 1957, the total fertility rate began to decline and produced the "baby bust."

   1. Current Fertility Patterns.

      Although the total fertility rate is slightly under the population replacement level of 2.1, the rate is not uniform across all race and ethnic groups. Latinos have the highest total fertility rates. The United States birth rate has been declining over the past two centuries. Although most people continue to want children, they also want smaller families than in the past.

3. TO PARENT OR NOT?

   All too often, the exposure most of us have to child rearing involves its romantic side. Parenthood, like any other social activity, involves costs and benefits.

   1. The Costs of Parenthood.

      Children today are primarily consumers. According to a 1996 survey by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, average new parents will spend nearly $150,000 to raise their newborns to the age of 17.

      1. Time, Energy, and Emotional Costs: Raising children requires a great investment of parental time and energy. It also carries a high emotional cost in terms of concern over drugs, gangs, and random violence.

      2. Lifestyle Disruptions: The birth of a child can disrupt previously satisfying lifestyles. Infants interrupt sleep and lovemaking, change household routines, and alter social life and recreational pursuits.

   2. The Benefits of Parenthood.

      Most parents believe the benefits of parenthood outweigh the costs.

      1. Emotional Bonds: Children are not only consumers and takers; they also give love and affection and are a tangible symbol of love for many parents.

      2. Adult Status: Many people see children as a means of achieving adult status, recognition, and personal fulfillment.

      3. Fun and Enjoyment: Having children can be fun. Through children, adults can reexperience some of the delights of their own childhood.

   3. The Social Pressures to Procreate.

      It is in society's interest to promote a pronatalist attitude, one that encourages childbearing. Societies vary in their strategies for accomplishing this goal.

   4. The Child-Free Option.

      Having children was always assumed to be the normal course of development for married couples. Today, however, more couples question whether to have children, and approximately 7 percent of all married couples consciously choose to be child-free.

      1. Career and Marital Considerations: Some couples prefer not to have children because they want to focus their energy on constructing satisfying careers and they want to avoid work/family conflict.

      2. Personal Fulfillment: Some couples prefer to invest the majority of their time and energy in hobbies, adult relationships, or other activities they find satisfying.

      3. Qualifications for Parenthood: Most people can become biological parents but not all people have good parenting skills.

      4. Antinatalist Forces: Society can employ its institutions to discourage childbearing (e.g., China's one-child policy).

      5. Delayed parenting refers to having a first child at age 30 or after and is a relatively new trend in the United States, increasing from only 4 percent of American women in the early 1970s to over 26 percent in the late 1990s. Couples who delay parenting are more likely to be white, highly educated, to work in professional occupations, and to earn high incomes.

4. CONTROLLING FERTILITY

   Throughout history, groups have attempted to control the timing and number of births to ensure an adequate supply of food and other resources for the entire community. In contrast to the early methods, efficient and safe methods of contraception are readily available today. Most of us take for granted the availability of contraceptives, but their distribution and use in the United States was outlawed in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Margaret Sanger battled to legalize contraceptives. She coined the term birth control as a positive description of family limitation. The distribution of contraceptives in the United States was outlawed in the latter half of the nineteenth century and remained illegal in some states until 1965; in 1977, this right was extended to minors.

   1. Reasons for Not Using Contraceptives.

      Some young people believe they can't get pregnant the first time they have intercourse. Jerry Burger and Linda Burns call this the "illusion of unique invulnerability."

      1. Symbolism of Sexual Activity: Being prepared with a contraceptive is a visible symbol of sexual activity.

      2. Role of Peers and Parents: Friends share information and tend to behave in similar fashion. Parents who have difficulty discussing sex with their children are more likely to have children who will not use contraceptives.

      3. Contraception Is Not Romantic: Some people complain that planning for and using contraceptives takes the spontaneity and romance out of a relationship.

      4. The Nature of the Relationship: People are more likely to use contraceptives in the context of an ongoing, steady relationship than when they begin a new relationship.

5. ABORTION

   Refers to the termination of a pregnancy before the fetus can survive on its own. This can occur spontaneously (miscarriage) or be induced through a variety of external methods. In 1996 there were approximately 1.2 million abortions, slightly higher than the previous year, but still considerably lower than the 1.4 million in 1990.

   1. Historical Perspective.

      Until the nineteenth century, American laws concerning abortion reflected the tradition in English common law that abortion was permissible until "quickening." By the middle of the nineteenth century, there was one induced abortion for every four live births. Connecticut was the first state to regulate abortion in order to protect women. Criminalizing abortion drove abortions underground. They became expensive, difficult to get, and dangerous. Two events in the 1960s became a catalyst for new debate on the abortion issue. One involved the drug thalidomide, and the other an outbreak of rubella. In 1973, the Supreme Court, in Roe v. Wade, struck down all antiabortion laws as violations of a woman's right to privacy.

   2. Race, Class, and Age.

      Abortion has become increasingly less accessible, especially for the poor, women of color and young women. In 1976, Congress passed the Hyde Amendment, which prohibited using federal Medicaid funds for abortions except where the woman's life was endangered. The approach to abortion varies from country to country. Restrictive abortion laws that prevent access to safe abortion services often lead to increased death and health problems.

   3. Public Attitudes Toward Abortion.

      Attitudes toward abortion are influenced by many factors: new information, economic and political developments, the media, and personal experiences. Although support for legalized abortion in cases where the mother's health is endangered has remained stable for over 25 years, public opinion has shifted in the direction of making abortions more difficult to get.

6. INFERTILITY

   The medical profession defines infertility as the inability to conceive after 12 months of unprotected intercourse or the inability to carry a pregnancy to live birth. At any given time, approximately 15 to 20 percent of all married couples experience some form of infertility.

   1. Causes of Infertility.

      Often seen as a women's problem, men are as likely to experience infertility problems as are women. A large percentage of female reproductive problems are connected with ovulation problems and blockage of the fallopian tubes. In men, sperm production may be too low, activity too low, or there may be a blockage.

   2. Consequences of Infertility.

      Reactions to infertility vary by gender. Wives experience a deep sense of personal failure and often become preoccupied with the task of solving their infertility problems. Husbands are more likely to view infertility as an unfortunate circumstance. In coping with infertility, some couples view adoption as a solution. However, because of birth control, abortion, and the tendency for unwed mothers to keep their babies, there is a shortage of adoptable infants, especially white infants.

7. REPRODUCTION WITHOUT SEX: THE NEW TECHNOLOGIES

   As contraceptive technology improved, fewer unwanted children were available for the infertile to adopt. Pressure to find ways to overcome infertility grew, however, the new reproductive technologies have generated considerable controversy.

   1. Artificial Insemination.

      Involves injection of sperm into a woman's vagina during her fertile period. The legal, ethical, and family issues surrounding AI stem from the fact that different sources of sperm are utilized in the procedure. The donor may be the husband (AIH) or an anonymous donor (AID).

   2. In Vitro Fertilization.

      Sometimes called "test-tube fertilization" because it takes place outside the woman's body, usually in a laboratory. The first publicly acknowledged human success of IVF occurred in England in July 1978 with the birth of Louise Brown. Three years later, the first IVF baby was born in the United States. Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer and Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer, developed around 1985, are two of the newest techniques for helping infertile couples. In 1996, over 20,000 babies were born as a result of these procedures.

   3. Embryo Transplant.

      This procedure is used when a woman is unable to produce viable ova. A variety of fertilization techniques may be used.

   4. Surrogacy.

      The term refers to a woman who becomes pregnant and gives birth to a child for another woman who is infertile or incapable of carrying a child. This is the most controversial of all techniques, because it involves a third party. There are many legal issues surrounding surrogate motherhood. What if the surrogate changes her mind and decides to keep the child?

8. THE CHOICE TO PARENT

   Whatever their feelings concerning pregnancy and childbirth, a majority of Americans have at least one child.

9. CONCEPTION

   Pregnancy and eventual childbirth begin with conception, the process by which a male sperm cell penetrates the female ovum creating a fertilized egg, or zygote. Ovulation makes conception possible. If the egg is not fertilized within 18 to 24 hours after ovulation, it disintegrates and menstruation begins. Under most conditions, females cannot conceive before they have begun to menstruate and ovulate. Males are capable of participating in conception when they begin to produce sperm.

   1. Multiple Conception and Births

      Multiple conception, in which two or more children are conceived at one time, is relatively rare. The most common form of multiple conception and birth is twins. In 1996, approximately 6000 babies were born in triplets, quadruplets, and even larger sets of multiple births, the largest number ever. These numbers are believed to be related primarily to the use of fertility drugs. Considerable debate has ensued concerning the ethics and morality associated with multiple births.

   2. Sex Preference and Selection

      With increasing advances in reproductive technology a couple no longer have to leave the determination of their unborn child's sex completely up to chance. Sex selection is a sensitive and controversial issue.

10. PREGNANCY

    Pregnancy initiates many changes both physically and emotionally for a woman, her partner, and the fetus.

    1. Prenatal Development and Care.

       The attitudes and behaviors of a mother during pregnancy greatly influence the health and well-being of the fetus and later of the human infant.

       1. The Health and Well-Being of the Fetus: Amniocentesis is performed when there is some concern about a hereditary disease. An ultrasound allows a physician and the couple to observe the developing fetus. For many couples, one of the rewards of the ultrasound is the sonogram, which allows parents to see the fetus and any movements it makes. Most often, a pregnancy ends with the birth of a healthy baby. Nine out of ten babies born in the country are healthy.

    2. Prenatal Problems and Defects.

       Most estimates concerning birth defects in the United States fall between 3 and 5 percent, but a few are as high as 7 percent. All defects present at birth are referred to as congenital.

       1. Protecting the Prenatal Environment: Only about one-fifth of birth defects can be traced to heredity. Research has shown that age, race, and class have important effects on infant morbidity (illness) and mortality (death). The optimum age for pregnancy is between 20 and 35. The increasing cost of health care in this country prevents many pregnant women from receiving proper care during pregnancy.

       2. Nutrition: Because nutrients pass from mother to fetus through the placenta, the failure to eat nutritionally balanced meals can result in a number of health problems for the fetus.

       3. Smoking and Alcohol Consumption: Cigarette smoke passes from the mother through the placenta to the fetus, which could result in low birth weight infants, miscarriage, premature birth, or even death in early infancy. Smoking by fathers may have an indirect and negative effect on the fetus. Alcohol consumption can cause fetal alcohol syndrome. Experts have yet to agree on a safe level of alcohol consumption by pregnant women.

       4. Drugs and Other Substance Abuse: Almost all drugs that are taken during pregnancy cross the placenta. The fetus is particularly vulnerable during the first trimester.

       5. AIDS and Pregnancy: Many health professionals encourage HIV- positive women either not to get pregnant or to terminate the pregnancy if they are already pregnant. Pregnancy worsens AIDS in women. The physical appearance of an HIV-positive infant is referred to as embryopathy. Eighty-four percent of infants with AIDS are nonwhite.

11. EXPECTANT FATHERS

    Historically, pregnancy has been viewed primarily as women's work. Today, however, a growing number of fathers are participating in the pregnancy and childbirth experience.

    1. The Cultural Double Bind.

       Shapiro referred to the fact that men are encouraged to participate in the pregnancy and birth of their children, but they are treated as outsiders by everyone concerned. The father's presence is desired but his feelings are not. When men experience couvade (sympathetic pregnancy pains) they are often ridiculed.

12. PARENTAL ADJUSTMENTS, ADAPTATIONS AND PATTERNS OF CHILD REARING

    Parenthood is one of the most demanding roles that individuals and couples face in their lifetime. Research shows that children increase stress in a relationship and lower relationship satisfaction. The ways in which people parent are significantly tied to how parenting roles and gender roles are culturally defined. After the birth of a child, parents must develop a mother or father identity. For some women, stresses manifest themselves in postnatal depression. Couples often have to adjust their private and intimate time together to the schedule of a child.

    1. Parental Roles.

       Research has shown that for many people the transition to parenthood means taking on more traditional sex roles.

       1. Motherhood: Traditional notions of motherhood are rooted in a Eurocentric middle-class ideology that emphasizes mothering as a woman's highest achievement and fulfillment in life. Some researchers have referred to this as the motherhood mystique. The motherhood mystique also proposes that to be a good mother, a woman has to enjoy being a mother and all the work that is defined as part of the mothering role. If she does not, it will affect her children. This instills guilt in some women. Collins has proposed a model of African-American motherhood that consists of four basic themes: bloodmothers, othermothers, and women centered networks; providing as part of mothering; community othermothers and social activism; and motherhood as a symbol of power.

       2. Fatherhood: The traditional notion of fatherhood emphasizes the instrumental role of father as breadwinner and authority figure. Four different views coexist today: the aloof and distant father, father as breadwinner, father as gender-role model, and father as active, nurturant parent. Arlie Hochschild suggests that the older ideal of the father who commands authority and pays the bills has partly given way to the ideal of the nurturant new father who bonds with his child, but still pays some bills.

    2. Gender Differences in the Experience of Parenthood.

       Regardless of the division of labor before the birth of a child, after a child is born, mothers are typically more involved in child-care activities than fathers are. Because of the greater responsibility for child care and housework, mothers tend to experience much greater stress than fathers do.

    3. Styles of Parenting.

       Parents today are better informed about child development and behavior than ever before. Kohn discussed parenting styles in terms of self direction (found in middle-class parents) versus conformity (found among lower- and working-class parents) parental-value orientations. Other researchers have incorporated Kohn's findings into a model that divides parenting styles into three general categories: authoritarian (demands absolute obedience and often involves physical punishment), permissive (gives children autonomy and freedom to express themselves and downplays conformity), and authoritative (also encourages autonomous and self-reliant behavior).

    4. Race and Class.
       1. African-Americans: Middle-class parents try to teach their children values of high achievement, social striving, and a high regard for property ownership. They also have high educational and occupational expectations for their offspring. Working-class parents emphasize respectability and demand that their children behave well and not get into trouble with the police. They also stress conformity and obedience. Lower-class parents have little control over their children's behavior. Lempert points out that by accepting popular cultural images of African American families as "matriarchal," research has largely ignored the role that African American men play in supporting their families.

       2. Native-Americans: Family behaviors vary considerably from group to group. However, most stress a sense of family unity and tribal identity.

       3. Latinos: Certain Latino groups exhibit a similar emphasis on family interdependence and unity. Machismo, sex, and age grading characterized Mexican American families and child-rearing patterns.

       4. Asian-Americans: New immigrants are usually authoritarian, obedience and conformity are expected, and discipline is strict. Acculturated parents are usually more nurturing and verbal and give more autonomy.

    5. Lesbian and Gay Parents.

       Little is known about lesbian and gay parenting styles; however, available research indicates that lesbians tend to form extended networks of support that operate like any other family. The households tend to be less structured around a gender-specific division of labor. Gay fathers tend to be more strict disciplinarians than are heterosexual fathers.

    6. Single Parents.

       The number of single-parent families has increased dramatically over the past two decades. Almost one-third of all births in the United States now involve single mothers. According to some experts, half of the children born today will live in a single-parent family before they reach adulthood. The greatest increases in the rate of single childbearing occurred among college-educated, employed white women.

       1. Single Fathers: Only a small proportion of single-parent households are male-headed. Compared to single-parent mothers, single-parent fathers have a higher level of education and are more likely to hold full-time professional or higher-level jobs. All too often, the focus on single-parent families is on the problems they face. Depending on the resources and support systems available to parents, single parents will determine the degree to which parenting will be more rewarding than challenging.

    7. Teenage Parents.

       Contrary to popular belief, teenagers account for less than one-third of all unmarried mothers. African American teenagers account for less than 12 percent of all unmarried mothers. Early motherhood places tremendous demands on teenage mothers, who, like their adult counterparts, are generally raising their children without much support from the fathers. Some critics of teenage pregnancy and childbearing have attributed its rising incidence to the availability of welfare.

       1. Teenage Fathers: Like adult unmarried fathers, teenage unmarried fathers are all to often left out of the parenting equation. Research on single fathers generally, and teenage fathers especially, is limited.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading Chapter Nine, students should be able to:

1. define fertility, fertility rate, and total fertility rate, and discuss fertility trends in the United States.

2. outline the costs and rewards of being a parent.

3. analyze the factors which result in a couple deciding to remain child-free.

4. define contraception and analyze the pattern of contraceptive use in the United States.

5. present an overview of the abortion issue.

6. discuss the causes and consequences of infertility.

7. identify and describe in detail the new technologies available for facilitating conception.

8. discuss the social and legal implications involved in surrogate motherhood.

9. understand the various aspects of conception and sex preference and selection.

10. discuss prenatal development, problems and defects.

11. explore the cultural double bind experienced by expectant fathers.

12. discuss the options available for childbirth.

13. discuss parental adjustments, adaptations, and patterns of child rearing.

14. distinguish between the parenting styles of African Americans, Native- Americans, Latinos, and Asian-Americans.

15. present an overview of single parents, including single teenage parents.

KEY TERMS

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/CLASS EXERCISES

1. It is common for students to view birth rates and childbearing preferences as boring and cut-and-dried. One technique for dealing with this reaction is to distinguish between fertility (actual reproductive performance) and fecundity (biological potential for reproduction). In this way, students will come to understand how values are most important in terms of the decision to have children, rather than mechanical controls over fertility like contraception and abortion. One novel way of getting this idea across involves the following scenario: Ask your students to imagine a married couple in their bedroom preparing to have sex. Every conceivable contraceptive technique is available to the couple, and they are well aware of proper usage. They can, in other words, easily prevent conception if they desire. If, however, they WANT to have children and if they elect NOT to use contraceptives, they WILL have children, barring any physiological barriers. Thus, the availability or lack of availability of contraceptives is not the most important issue involving whether people have children; VALUES are the most important factor.

2. Encourage your students to vocalize their impressions of the many social pressures that motivate people to have children; some of them subtle, some not so subtle. In this way, students become sensitized to how difficult it is for people to elect voluntary childlessness. Although many couples are delaying childbearing, a clear majority eventually have children. Do all of these people really WANT children?

3. Most students are familiar with the perceived benefits of parenthood, but many have not thought about the costs. In particular, the negative impact of children on marital satisfaction is a hard concept for many students to grasp because of their socialization. This notion "goes against the grain," so to speak. It is useful for students to explore the stresses and strains that children place on a marital relationship.

4. Ask your students to list their two favorite television shows (excluding sports presentations). Second, tell them to have a pad and pencil with them the next time they watch these shows and make notes on how parenthood and parent-child interaction are portrayed in the programs. This can be a continuing source of insight and entertainment because each day you can call on students whose favorite show aired the night before and have them recount to the class what they observed about the socialization process. This also provides an opportunity to ask students how their own experiences as children-and possibly for some, as parents-are similar to or diverge from what they see on television.

5. In American society, it seems abnormal to NOT like children. W.C. Fields was fond of observing that he didn't like dogs or kids, but he was a comedian. Pose the question to your class: "Do any of you NOT like children?" Chances are, there will be some uncomfortable laughter, and few, if any of your students will make a comment. Use this as an opportunity to demonstrate how child-centered and parent-oriented our society really is. Furthermore, in view of this unidimensional focus, ask your students to consider how difficult life is for men and women who are not enthusiastic about parenting.

6. Ask the members of your class to vocalize which style of parenting their own mothers and fathers utilized in rearing them. How do they think this parental strategy affected their own development? What effects did their parents' behavior have on their self-esteem? Encourage the class to compare and contrast the comments that ensue.

7. The conflict view in sociology suggests that socialization is a coercive process that may be used to advance the interests of groups in power. Encourage your students to consider different ways in which parents are coercive ingredients in socialization. Ask them to vocalize whether they feel that their own parents have been coercive in their lives.

8. Research concerning the issues surrounding teen pregnancy and single parenthood reveals that young people who are involved with an unwanted pregnancy are often very well informed about contraception, but they did not use any contraceptive procedures during sexual intercourse. Why? Frequently, young people associate thinking about which contraceptive to use with the whole process of planning to have premarital sex. In other words, they reason, "If I have sex spontaneously, without thinking about it ahead of time, then I won't be guilty, but if I plan on having sex, then I'm a bad person." Ask students to evaluate how this line of thinking could motivate young people to avoid the use of contraceptives.

9. Ask a spokesperson from your local chapter of Planned Parenthood to visit your class in order to talk about teenage pregnancy, contraception, and the pro-choice position; for another class meeting, ask a representative of a pro-life organization to be a guest speaker. Emphasize beforehand that these events are not being staged as a debate, but as an opportunity to become familiar with the controversies surrounding abortion. Following the two presentations, you may encourage the class to compare and contrast the different positions.

10. During the first half of this century, it was generally agreed that one-child families should be avoided because only children tend to be selfish, greedy, and encounter more problems in comparison to kids who have siblings. Contemporary research suggests that only children are not automatically predisposed to selfish greed, and that there may even be some distinct advantages to the one-child family. Ask the members of your class to evaluate the pros and cons of only children. If possible, see if you can motivate one or more students who are only children to contribute to this discussion.

11. You may or may not wish to discuss abortion in class. The issue is volatile, and opening up class discussion is sometimes the equivalent of "opening Pandora's box." Still, encouraging your students to air their views on this controversial subject can lead to some very spirited and interesting exchanges. One way of avoiding a "Pro-Choice/Pro-Life" debate is to pose the question, "Are there ANY circumstances under which a woman should have the option of electing an abortion?" You may also wish to have the class assess the recent Supreme Court decision, which prevents states from prohibiting abortion.

FILMS AND VIDEOS

RUTH MACKLIN: Mortal Choices and Public Policy, 1992, 53 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This presentation deals with the dynamics of pregnancy: contraceptives, abortion, and various other philosophical issues surrounding parenting are examined.

 

To Parent Or Not To Parent? (Portrait of a Family series), 1988, 30 min. (RMI Media Productions, Inc.). This program focuses on how parenthood changes people's lives in major and irreversible ways. Among the issues approached in this presentation are the declining U.S. fertility rate, societal views of parenthood, the personal impact of parenthood and regulating conception.

 

Delayed Parenthood: Pros and Cons, 1982, 22 min. (CBS; CARSL). Discusses career desires, self-awareness needs, and economic demands, as well as medical advances which have influenced couples' decisions to delay parenthood. Pregnant women, children of older parents, doctors, therapists, and employers are interviewed in this film.

 

Baby Clock, 1982, 48 min. (Centre Productions; Barr). This program looks at five career women who must face the issue of whether or not to have children as their biological baby clocks continue to tick. Discusses the presence of peer group pressures to have children, the image of "supermom," the role of fathers in parenting, and other consequences of parenthood.

 

Motherhood On Hold: Pregnancy After 35, 1995, 23 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). For an entire generation of young women, the changing social environment of the 1960s and 1970s created what appeared to be predictable control over their life choices. As discussed in different parts of Lauer and Lauer's text, many of these women pursued careers and "put motherhood on hold." Later on, however, they concluded "It's now or never." This program evaluates the issues and problems surrounding women who have waited until the third (and fourth) decades of life to conceive.

 

Welcome to Parenthood, 1979, 16 min. (Vanderlinden; Filmakers Ltd.) . Presents the reactions of new parents to the realities and responsibilities of parenthood. Reveals their feelings of frustration, anger, disappointment, and inadequacy, but balances these negative feelings by showing positive interactions with their children.

 

Family Affair: Educating Today's Parents, 1995, 24 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program explores the techniques that can lead to "good" parenting, examining several different families and the styles of parenting in each. The presentation shows what works and what doesn't when it comes to parent-child interaction.

 

Things Your Mother Never Told You, 1988, 58 min. (Filmakers Library) . In this presentation, forty women explore their feelings about motherhood, including the ironies and contradictions in their lives.

 

Psychology of Parenting, 1992, 19 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This presentation takes a predominantly psychological approach to parenting, exploring how parents can communicate more effectively with their children.

 

Trying Times: Crisis in Fertility, 1988, 33 min. (Fanlight Productions, 47 Halifax St., Boston, MA 02130). This program discusses the impact of infertility on people's lives.

 

High Tech Babies, 1987, 58 min. (Coronet Film and Video). This presentation describes many of the new birth technologies discussed in the text and the legal and moral issues involved. In the program, one couple is followed through the process of in vitro fertilization and another is portrayed searching for a surrogate mother.

 

The Influence of the Family, 1991, 60 min. (Insight Media). This program explores the effects of complex family interactions on child development and shows how different family structures (dual-income, single-parent, and blended) affect children. The circumplex model of parenting is discussed and parental discipline is considered.

 

Family Influences, 1992, 30 min. (Insight Media). This presentation illustrates how family background influences the way people view themselves and others. Different styles of parenthood are discussed, including those mentioned in the text: authoritative, permissive, authoritarian, and uninvolved, and the characteristics of children raised within each of these styles are evaluated. The video also considers nontraditional families and discusses recent findings on child development research.

 

One Plus One Equals Three (Portrait of a Family series), 1988, 30 min. (RMI Media Productions, Inc.). This program highlights different styles of parenting: pal, police officer, teacher, coach, etc. and also portrays the permissive, autocratic, and authoritative styles.

 

Grounded for Life: Teenage Pregnancy, 1996, 30 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program examines the rising national trend of unplanned pregnancies in the teen population. The program utilizes actual case studies and interviews with teenage mothers.

 

Kids Raising Kids: The Education of a Teen Mother, 1995, 24 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program follows two teenage mothers who are able to complete their high school degrees because of a high school daycare program. The presentation also demonstrates the advantages of accepting teen mothers and fathers into the high school education system.

 

Are You Talking To Me?, 1988, 29 min. (Tom Van Dyke; Film Ideas, Inc.). This presentation deals predominantly with the effects of substance abuse on teenagers' lives, but there are important implications for teenage pregnancy. There are realistic scenes in this video featuring more than 300 inner-city and suburban students show real-life situations involving experimentation with drugs and sexual behavior.

 

Being a Single Parent, 1990, 19 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program focuses on three very different kinds of single parents: a divorced woman, a woman who chose to be a single parent, and a man who reared his two sons alone.

 

Fathers, 1988, 52 min. (Filmakers Library). Compares and contrasts different styles of fathering, including heavy career orientation, authoritarian, and shared child-care responsibilities with mother. This film stresses the effort involved in cultivating strong family relationships.

 

Florence and Robin: Lesbian Parenthood, 1993, 52 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This frank program follows a lesbian couple's journey toward parenthood; from a sperm bank run by lesbians for lesbians in San Francisco to the state of Virginia, where a lesbian mother recently lost custody of her son. The program also includes interviews with the children of lesbian and gay couples.

 

Abortion: The Moral Dilemma, 1991, 28 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This presentation evaluates the abortion controversy, including points of view aired by a Catholic bio-ethicist, a clinical geneticist, and a female Asian-American politician.