CHAPTER OUTLINE

1. DISTINGUISHING SEX AND GENDER ROLES

   Sociologists use the term role to refer to a set of expected behaviors associated with a specific status or position we hold in society. Statuses into which we are born are known as ascribed statuses. Statuses which we acquire via our own efforts are known as achieved statuses. Role expectations are defined and structured around the privileges and obligations associated with the status. By making our behavior fairly predictable, they make social order possible. However, rigid role definitions often lead to the development of stereotypes, in which certain qualities are assigned to an individual solely on the basis of his or her social category. Sociologists regard the status of being female or male as a master status. It is important to understand the dynamics associated with gender status and to distinguish between the concepts of sex and gender. Sex refers to the biological aspects of a person, and gender refers to the socially learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations associated with being female or male. Gender identity is a person's awareness of being female or male.

   1. The Process of Sex Differentiation.

      Our biological sex is established at the moment of conception, when each parent contributes 23 chromosomes to the fertilized egg. The father's genetic contribution determines the child's sex, in that he provides either an X or a Y chromosome. The process of sexual differentiation does not begin until the sixth week of embryonic development. Prior to that time, the XX and XY embryos are anatomically identical, each possessing a set of female and a set of male ducts.

   2. Gender Differences: The Nature-Nurture Debate.

      The differences within each sex are often greater than the differences between the two sexes. The interconnectedness between biology and culture can be seen by examining a few of the sex/gender variations that exist in the human population: intersexuality, transsexuals, and multiple genders. There are cultures where individuals have adopted the gender ascribed to members of the other sex. In the Mohave culture, boys could adopt a feminine lifestyle and become alyha; girls could become hwame.

2. TRADITIONAL MEANINGS OF FEMININITY AND MASCULINITY

   The assignment of roles is based on the assumption that females and males are fundamentally different from each other and that the content of these roles reflects the biological differences between the sexes.

   1. Traditional Gender Roles: Female and Male.

      Women are expected to be nurturing and emotional while men are supposed to be providers and achievement-oriented.

   2. Gender Variations: Race, Class, and Culture.

      Gender stereotypes are the overgeneralized beliefs about the characteristics associated with being female or male and are widely shared within a society. Studies have shown that race and class affect people's perceptions of gender roles. Black women are viewed as less passive, dependent, status-conscious, emotional, and concerned about their appearance than white women. Latinas tend to be viewed as more submissive and dependent than white women.

3. GENDER ROLES IN TRANSITION

   Many changes, along with the liberation movements of the 1960s and 1970s, have challenged traditional gender roles. Ideologically, if not always behaviorally, there has been a shift to more egalitarian gender roles. Several factors combine to make change difficult: people who hold privileged positions have a vested interest in keeping them; existing social arrangements tend to reinforce traditional gender roles; and gender identities develop early in life and much of what is learned is still based on traditional gender norms.

4. THEORIES OF GENDER-ROLE SOCIALIZATION

   Although socialization is a lifelong process, it is especially significant in our formative years.

   1. Psychoanalytic/Identification Theory.

      Originating with Sigmund Freud, who believed that children learn genderappropriate behaviors by unconsciously identifying with their same-sex parent and that they pass through a series of stages in their development (oral, anal, phallic). According to Freud, gender identification occurs in the phallic stage.

      1. Critiques of Freudian Theory: It is impossible to verify the theory empirically and that it contains antifemale bias. Karen Horney challenged the notion that women view their bodies as inferior. Erik Erikson suggested that male dominance is, in part, related to womb envy. Nancy Chodorow sees the "asymmetrical organization of parenting" as the basis for gender inequality and the source of identification problems for boys.

   2. Social Learning Theory.

      This theory has its roots in behaviorism. It asserts that gender roles and identity are learned directly through a system of positive reinforcement (rewards) and negative reinforcement (punishments), and indirectly through observation and modeling (imitation). Behavior that is rewarded is more likely to be repeated and behavior that is punished is more likely to be discontinued.

   3. Cognitive Development Theory.

      This theory is based on the belief that the child's mind matures through interaction with the surrounding environment and that children take an active role in organizing their world. They create schemas, or mental categories, that emerge through interaction with their social environment. The schemas are fluid. Kohlberg adapted cognitive-development theory to explain the emergence of children's gender identities. Children label themselves as girl or boy based on superficial characteristics such as clothes. Once gender identity is developed, children are able to organize their behavior around it. The theory minimizes the role of culture in gender socialization.

   4. Enculturated-Lens Theory.

      This theory asserts that hidden cultural assumptions about how societal members should look, behave, and feel are so deeply embedded in social institutions and cultural discourse, that these behaviors and ways of thinking are systematically reproduced from one generation to the next.

5. AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

   Gender role socialization begins at birth and continues throughout an individual's lifetime. In our interactions with others we are constantly taught values, attitudes, and behaviors that our culture views as appropriate for each sex.

   1. Parents.

      Provide children with their first exposure to gender learning and play a key role in helping children develop a sense of themselves as females and males. Parents treat and communicate with their sons and daughters differently.

      1. Clothing: The type of clothing that children wear serves the function of maintaining gender-specific behavior.

      2. Toys and Games: Boys generally have a wide range of toys, many of which promote outdoor activity, whereas girls' toys are less varied and promote indoor play.

      3. Chores: Girls are expected to do indoor work and boys to do outdoor work. Girls' chores occur daily and boys' chores are sporadic, so girls tend to spend more time doing chores.

      4. Language: When masculine pronouns are used extensively, children may limit their aspirations to what appear to be gender-appropriate occupations.

      5. Peers and Play Activities: Girls and boys prefer same-sex groups. Sociologist Janet Lever believes that boys' activities better prepare them to succeed in modern industrial societies because they are organized around competition.

   2. Teachers.

      From elementary grades through college, researchers have observed differential treatment of females and males.

   3. The Mass Media.
      1. Television: More than 98 percent of United States households have at least one TV set, 65 percent have videocassette recorders, and 52 percent subscribe to cable TV. The average school-age child watches approximately 27 hours of TV per week.
         1. Children's Shows: Content analysis reveals that the shows feature only males as dominant characters, with females playing peripheral roles, if any. The reasoning behind this is that boys will not watch shows with female leads, but girls will watch shows with male leads.

      2. Prime-Time Television: Continues to portray traditional gender roles. Females are also generally thin and physically attractive, which has led some people to suspect a relationship between television images and eating disorders.

      3. News Programs: Although more women than men graduate with degrees in journalism, women account for less than 2 percent of newspaper corporate management, 5 percent of publishers and general managers, and 13 percent of directing editors. Perhaps as women gain positions of power in the news media, coverage of women in the news will become less sexist.

6. CONSEQUENCES OF GENDER STEREOTYPING

   Studies show that each gender role has its advantages, but both women and men perceive the female role as having more disadvantages.

   1. Lifestyle Choices.

      Current gender expectations continue to limit women's lifestyle choices. Women who wish to combine career and family often must do so without much societal support. High-profile women who challenge the status quo are often labeled "radical feminists" and are suspected of undermining "family values." Men, too, have found their lifestyle choices limited by traditional gender expectations.

   2. Self-Esteem.

      Given that society values traits identified as masculine more highly than those identified as feminine, we might well expect to find gender differences in self-esteem, and research generally bears this out. Two factors seem to play a crucial role in the relationship between gender and self-esteem:

      1. Age: Boys have higher self-esteem in elementary school than girls, and that gap between them widens in high school. Latinas and white females show the largest decline in self-esteem. Black females have the smallest decrease.

      2. Sex Typing: Researchers report that the highest levels of self-esteem are found among both females and males who are high in masculine traits or who are androgynous (having both instrumental/ masculine and expressive/feminine traits).

   3. Self-Confidence.

      Girls and boys differ in levels of self-confidence, and the gap widens with age. Females tend to underestimate their abilities, whereas males over-estimate theirs.

   4. Mental Health.

      Gender differences in mental illness have long been observed. There is considerable evidence that gender stereotypes play a pivotal role in these rates - women are more likely than men to seek help for their problems. People who conform to traditional gender roles are likely to be viewed as healthier than those who deviate from them, however, rigid adherence to these roles may interfere with the development of good mental health for both women and men. Marital status and level of marital power are also related to feelings of depression among women. The cultural connection between work and male identity can create considerable psychological stress for unemployed men.

   5. Women, Men, and Friends.

      Throughout most of history, men's friendships have been considered the model of what friendship should be. However, research focusing on the similarities and differences between female and male friendship patterns has not substantiated this theory. Overall, women's friendships tend to be characterized by intimacy, self-disclosure, nuturance, and emotional support. Men's friendships focus more on shared activities and tend to be less intimate than women's friendships.

      1. Cross-Sex Friendships: Adults become fearful that cross-sex friend- ships can become sexual.

   6. Patterns of Communication.

      According to Deborah Tannen, women speak and hear a language of intimacy and connectedness, whereas men speak and hear a language of status and independence.

      1. Rapport Talk: Women's conversational style is used to signal support, to confirm solidarity, or to indicate they are following the conversation.

      2. Report Talk: Men's conversational style is intended to preserve independence and to negotiate and maintain status in a hierarchical order.

7. CHANGING REALITIES, CHANGING ROLES

   The world we inhabit today is quite different from that of our parents and grandparents. Many of the old patterns of socialization are not sufficient to provide solutions to the psychological and economic strains experienced by many people today. We must seek new ways to socialize our children so that they can appreciate that the function and qualities stereotypically associated with each gender have negative consequences for women's and men's development and self-esteem.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading Chapter Three, students should be able to:

1. distinguish between ascribed and achieved statuses, and understand how role expectations are defined and structured around the privileges and obligations associated with the status.

2. evaluate the effects of stereotyping as justification for unequal treatment on the basis of gender.

3. distinguish between sex and gender, and define gender identity.

4. discuss the nature/nurture debate as it relates to gender.

5. describe the traditional gender roles, discuss the traditional meanings of masculinity and femininity, and understand gender variations by race, class and culture.

6. identify ways in which gender roles are changing.

7. list and discuss the four theories of gender-role socialization.

8. identify the agents of socialization and describe how they provide gender- role socialization.

9. list and evaluate the consequences of gender stereotyping.

KEY TERMS

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/CLASS EXERCISES

1. A very good way to stimulate discussion is to have the students respond in writing and anonymously to the question, "How would your life be different if you were a member of the opposite sex?" Have your students write "Male" or "Female" at the top of a blank sheet of paper before they begin; allow about fifteen to twenty minutes for them to respond. If the class size permits, read each of the student's responses aloud; if the class is too large, read every Nth response; sort the responses into "Male" and "Female" categories, as this intensifies the dramatic differences in responses between the sexes. Have your class react to these responses; be prepared for some emotional reactions.

2. Bring to class either a bag of gender specific toys, or make cards with the names of toys written on them. Have the students assign the toys to one of two piles-- one for girls and one for boys. Do not offer a third, non-gender specific option unless the students ask for one. Although many students will realize the reason for this demonstration and claim that they would dress a boy baby in a bonnet (it provides more shade from the sun!) and give him a Barbie doll to play with, it will still show how children are socialized by toys and games. You might ask what toys the students were given as young children and what games they played.

3. Ask the students if they were ever prevented from playing a certain sport because of their sex. Explore how attitudes have changed in recent years.

4. There has been much discussion in recent years about how dysfunctional the traditional female role is for women. Ask the students to give examples of how the traditional male role may be dysfunctional for men.

5. Assign half of the class to watch Saturday morning television and the other half to watch the nightly news in order to determine if and where gender bias is found.

6. Ask for six volunteers (three females and three males) and send them out of the room. Tell the rest of the class to do a content analysis of the conversations when the volunteers return. They should be looking for gender specific styles of conversation and communicating. Finally, divide the volunteers into groups (FF, FM, MM) and give them a situation to role play (one couple at a time, without the other couples in the classroom). Do not tell them what their classmates will be looking for.

7. Ask your students to think about ways in which males play instrumental roles and females play expressive roles. You may wish to clarify these concepts relative to a functionalist perspective. Encourage them to explore how these role formations came into being, with particular emphasis on how males have come to occupy the powerful, decision-making positions in American society. This technique should assist your students in understanding a social structural approach to sexual inequality.

8. Kelley J. Hall and Betsy Lucal ("Tapping Into Parallel Universes: Using Superhero Comic Books in Sociology Courses," Teaching Sociology, 27, 1999: 60-66) have engineered a novel plan for integrating comic book genres in the classroom. They first developed this exercise as a means for students to examine portrayals of gender in popular culture. Depending on the comic book, women and men are typically portrayed in stereotypical fashion and, only on occasion, are any supporting characters openly gay, lesbian, or bisexual. You may want to take a look at Hall and Lucal's article and see if there's something there that you might use in your class discussions.

9. In recent years, the American Sociological Association journal, Teaching Sociology has featured a wide variety of extremely useful articles that deal with gender roles. The topic of sexual inequality has the potential for generating spirited discussions, if an interesting approach is taken. Within the past few years, many stimulating articles on teaching about gender have appeared in Teaching Sociology. These writings should assist you in organizing discussions to suit your needs: In the October, 1991 issue: Richard A. Wright and Catherine C. Kane's "'Women Speak This Week': Promoting Gender Equality and Awareness in Class Discussions." Theresa A. Martinez has written an interesting article, "Popular Music in the Classroom: Teaching Race, Class, and Gender With Popular Culture," which appears in the July, 1994 issue of Teaching Sociology (Vol. 22, No. 3). The April, 1995 (Vol. 23, No. 1) issue of the ASA journal Teaching Sociology is devoted to teaching about inequality and diversity. In this issue are numerous articles concerning ideas for the classroom in approaching the topic of gender and gender roles. Finally, in the January, 1998 issue, Robert W. Volk and Mark Beeman ("Revisiting The Eye of the Storm: The Subtleties of Gender Bias," 26: 38-48) discuss how this award-winning documentary presentation can be used to sensitize students to the dynamics of gender-based prejudice and discrimination.

10. Your students will be curious about how gender differences are reflected in terms of career choice. A classic study of this phenomenon is presented by Almquist and Angrist in two of their publications: "Role Model Influence on College Women's Career Expectations," Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 17, 1971: 263-79; and Careers and Contingencies, 1975, New York: Dunnellen. Along these lines, many women today comment that they are disinclined to worry about what their earnings will be in choosing a career because their husbands will be primary breadwinners. How do the members of your class react to these issues? How widespread are such beliefs; are sex differences still a factor in career selection?

FILMS AND VIDEOS

Men, Women, and the Sex Difference: Boys and Girls are Different, 1997, 43 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). In this ABC News special, correspondent John Stossel raises questions about the nature/nurture debate and whether the issue of gender differences should even be raised. Feminists Gloria Steinem, the late Bella Abzug, and Gloria Allred join in the discussion.

 

Gender and the Interpretation of Emotion, 1997, 25 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). Do the sexes differ in their ability to judge complex emotions in others? This is the central question dealt with in this presentation.

 

Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus: Gender Differences in Relationships, 1998, 46 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). In this ABC News special, Barbara Walters and best-selling author John Gray (author of Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus) evaluate the sexes in terms of differences/similarities in male and female behavior.

 

Brain Sex: Brain Architecture and the Sexes, 1998, 3 installments, 51 minutes each, (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). In this three part series, which are available separately, the issue of sex differences is evaluated in terms of the "facts behind sex differences," "why the sexes excel differently," and "how sex differences affect relationships."

 

The Differences Between Men and Women, 1996, 23 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). Are the social and psychological differences between men and women conditioned by biology or by familial and social environment? This program presents the opinion of scientists who reach beyond the obvious physical differences to others that are not as visible. Recent research claiming that the human female and male brain are different is evaluated. Finally, the presentation tries to make sense of the nature-nurture debate in terms of perceived differences between the sexes.

 

Sex Hormones and Sexual Destiny, 1992, 26 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program visits a Rutgers University laboratory, where research has demonstrated that hormone levels have a distinct and measurable effect on "masculine" and "feminine" behaviors and that the anatomical structure of male and female brains differ. The program also discusses the effect of right-brain and left-brain communication and the influence of environment on male and female behavior.

 

Gender Socialization, 1993, 60 min. (Insight Media). This program discusses how gender socialization affects self-esteem, emotions, behavior, and world view. It considers how social action has influenced gender socialization in the past, as well as what can be done to effect future change.

 

The Idea of Gender, 1995, 60 min. (Insight Media). This presentation deals with how the idea of gender has evolved in Europe and America over the past 200 years, discussing how it has been challenged and transformed over time.

 

Men and Women: Talking Together, 1993, 58 min. (Insight Media). Deborah Tannen (You Just Don't Understand) and Robert Bly (Iron John) discuss communication between the sexes before a live audience. They field questions from the audience concerning such topics as male/female conversational rituals, the politics of shame, and comforting as a power device.

 

In My Country: An International Perspective on Gender, 1993, 91 min. (Insight Media). This is an excellent resource on cultural attitudes related to gender, covering household labor, types of discipline for boys and girls, marriage decisions, society's view of rape, and attitudes toward homosexuals.

 

Tootsie, 1982, 110 min. (rental video). This film tells the story of an out-of-work actor (played by Dustin Hoffman) who disguises himself as a woman in order to get work. The film can be utilized as a vehicle for understanding gender role expectations, sex discrimination, and, very uniquely, how a man feels as a woman. Tootsie was reviewed in Teaching Sociology, January, 1989: 135-36.

 

The Women of Summer: An Unknown Chapter of American Social History, 1986, 55 min. (Filmakers Library). This documentary looks at a group of blue-collar women who participated in an experiment called The Bryn Mawr Summer School for Women Workers in the period 1921-1938. These women were introduced to ideas considered radical for that period. There are interviews with some of these women 50 years after the summer program. They talk about the powerful influence the experience had on their lives.

 

Six Generations of Suffragettes: The Women's Rights Movement, 1998, 15 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This presentation traces the women's rights movement from the early years in the late 1800s to the protest marches of the 1960s and 1970s.

 

Can Working Women Have it All?, 1988, 28 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). Can women combine a successful career with a successful home life and not die of exhaustion in pursuit of superwomanhood? Panelists join Phil Donahue in exploring the issues confronting today's women and the choices they make.

 

Women: A True Story, 1997, a six-part series, 47 min. each, (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). The six installments are: "The Gender Tango," "The Double Shift," The Need to Know," "Body Politics," "The Power Game," "Postcards from the Future."

 

Keltie's Beard: A Woman's Story, 1983, 9 min. (Filmakers Library). The women in Keltie's family have always surreptitiously removed their facial hair in order to be pleasing to men. She decides to let hers grow, and describes what it is like to challenge the stereotypical image of womanhood.

 

Sexual Harassment From 9 to 5, 1987, 26 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program examines the legal and human aspects of sexual harassment in the workplace. New laws have been passed that make companies liable when employees are sexually harassed. The video focuses on an AT&T training session which teaches employees to distinguish between romance, harassment, and sexual extortion.

 

Women's Voices: The Gender Gap Movie, 1985, 16 min. (New Day Films). This presentation interweaves persuasive interviews with fifteen women, including a suburban housewife, a dairy farmer, high school students, senior citizens, and startling statistics about the gender gap.

 

Sexual Stereotypes in Media: Superman and the Bride, 1991, 40 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program shows how pervasive societal images are of men as "Superman" and women as his slavish bride and companion.

 

Sexism in Language, 1990, 20 min. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences). This program presents closely analyzed examples that show how sexism and antisexism may be contained in language use--in song lyrics, everyday conversation, newspaper reports, written conventions, and satire.

 

Gender Issues in the U.S.A., Parts I and II, 1992, 60 min. each (RMI Media Productions). These two presentations deal with women in the workforce, feminism, recent legislative changes promoted by women, rise of men's groups, and other stimulating topics related to sexual inequality.

 

Sex and Gender, 1991, 30 min. (Insight Media). This video examines the lives of three women of different generations, showing how they have been treated differently as women depending upon the generation in which they were raised. The effects of sex ratios and gender-related norms are analyzed. The program investigates sociological perspectives on gender-based social stratification as well as the social changes that have occurred as a result of the Women's Movement.

 

The Masculine Mystique, 1986, 86 min. (University of Minnesota Film and Video). What do "real men" think about feminism? This video highlights the stories of four men and their relationships with women. One man has searched for years and can't find the "right woman." Another is married and having an affair. The other two are divorced with children; one has found a partner who is unwilling to have a permanent relationship, and the other is unwilling to risk a new commitment.

 

May the Best Man Win: A Discussion of Sex Bias in the Workplace, 1989, Parts 1 and 2; 24 and 33 min. (Coronet/MTI Film and Video). This program involves an awareness-raising dramatization of sex bias on the job, including illustrations of the frustrations women feel while climbing the corporate ladder; the different rules and standards that are often applied to men and women in business; and how women are often pressured to view work as a job, rather than a career.

 

Men's Lives, 1974, 43 min. (New Day Films). This film focuses on socialization into the male role, the costs of the role and offers an explanation of male dominance in terms of the economy. The film consists of a series of interviews and vignettes from men's lives. The material is informally presented. This presentation is over twenty years old, and through it, a glimpse may be had of how the male role has changed even further during the past two decades.

 

Men and Masculinity: Changing Roles, Changing Lives, 1993, 30 min. (Organized Against Sexism and Institutionalized Stereotypes, Inc.). This presentation offers new visions of men's roles and provides a glimpse of the men's movement in action and men's support groups.

 

Stale Roles and Tight Buns: Images of Men in Advertising, 1994, 29 min. (Organized Against Sexism and Institutionalized Stereotypes, Inc.). This is a classic companion to Killing Us Softly and Still Killing Us Softly. The presentation uses common advertising images to show how men are stereotyped in the media; through these images, the myths used to define and limit American men are exposed.

 

Union Maids, 1976, 48 min. (New Day Films). A documentary in which three women recall their role in the labor struggles of the 1930s. Their oppression as women and as workers is vividly recalled as is their struggle for a decent life. The relationship of women to the labor movement is explored in the comments of these women. The comments of one of the three, an African American woman, bring together the strands of working class, black, and women's history.

 

Who Remembers Mama?, 1981, 58 min. (New Day Films). A vivid look at the situation of middle-aged women who are emotionally and economically devastated by divorce. The film clearly reveals the dependency of women on men in traditional families and marriages. The structure inequality of the law is also explored in this film's treatment of the divorce process.

 

How Far Is Too Far?, 1987, 18 min. (U. of Minn. Film and Video). Sexual harassment may be a "dignified term for disgusting behavior," but what does it mean for people in real-life work situations? Reporter Lynn Sherr interviews women whose victories in court have helped establish higher standards for behavior on the job.

 

No Longer Silent, 1986, 56 min. (U. of Minn. Film and Video). A woman in India has far less value than a man. A good woman's duties include cleaning house, bringing up children, and other domestic responsibilities, tolerating all of these tasks in silence, with constant deference to men. For Indian women, the struggle against injustice is a matter of life and death, and this documentary explores the issues involved.