Tom Gilovich, at Cornell University, has distinguished himself as a creative researcher in both social and cognitive psychology, and as an avid sports fan. He has combined these interests in a set of multimethod studies examining some causes of aggression.

Mark Frank and Gilovich started with the observation that almost universally black is seen as a color of evil and death. From mourning rituals to cowboy hats to heavy-metal music to being "blacklisted," "blackmailed," or "blackballed," cultures as diverse as the U.S., Germany, Hong Kong, Denmark, India, and tribes of Central Africa agree that it is not a color to be trifled with. So, too, in the sports world. Frank and Gilovich looked at the association between black and badness among teams in the National Football League (NFL) and National Hockey League (NHL).

Using archival records for the period between 1970 and 1986, the researchers calculated the number of yards penalized among the NFL teams and the number of minutes spent in the penalty box among the NHL teams as a measure of aggressiveness. These penalties were then compared between teams whose uniforms were primarily black (in the NFL: Pittsburgh Steelers, Oakland Raiders, New Orleans Saints, Cincinnati Bengals, and Chicago Bears, although the Bears actually wear dark blue uniforms; in the NHL: Pittsburgh Penguins, Vancouver Canucks, Philadelphia Flyers, Boston Bruins, and Chicago Blackhawks) and teams whose uniforms were not. Frank and Gilovich found that the black-clad teams reliably were more aggressive. As a further test, the researchers also identified two NHL teams (Pittsburgh and Vancouver) who had switched uniform colors from nonblack to black some time during their history. Following the switch, penalty minutes increased for these teams. However, this was not a mere effect of new fabric; when the New Jersey Devils moved from Colorado their uniforms changed from blue-and-gold to red-and-green, although there was no reliable change in the number of penalty minutes after the switch.

To explain these findings, Frank and Gilovich suggest that both self-perception and social perception are at work. When donning a black uniform, one may see oneself as tougher, meaner, and more aggressive, and so act in ways consistent with that self-perception. However, referees may also perceive players in dark uniforms as tougher, meaner, and more aggressive than they actually are (given the strong cultural association between black and badness), and so assess more penalties. To explore these explanations the researchers performed laboratory experiments. In one study college students and referees watched staged football games between teams wearing black or white uniforms. Both the students and the referees awarded more penalties to a team when it wore black. In a second experiment, students wore either white or black uniforms before participating in an athletic competition. Given their choice between aggressive and nonaggressive games, students wearing black reliably chose aggressive activities.

Frank, M. G., & Gilovich, T. (1988). The dark side of self- and social perception: Black uniforms and aggression in professional sports. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 74-85.