Chapter Overview
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Chapter 19: Religion Chapter Overview |
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PART I: CHAPTER OUTLINE
PART II: LEARNING OBJECTIVES
PART III: CHAPTER REVIEW: KEY POINTSRELIGION: BASIC CONCEPTS Religion primarily concerns the purpose and meaning of life. Emile Durkheim distinguished between the profane, meaning that which is an ordinary element of everyday life, and the sacred, or that which is defined as extraordinary, inspiring a sense of awe and reverence, and even fear. Religion is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on a conception of the sacred. The sacred is approached through ritual, or formal ceremonial behavior. Religion and Sociology Sociology investigates the social consequences of religion, but cannot verify or disprove religious doctrine. Religion is a matter of faith, or belief anchored in conviction rather than scientific evidence. Sociology is not a threat to religious faith. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF RELIGION Functions of Religion: Structural-Functional Analysis Emile Durkheim argued society has an existence of its own, beyond the lives of the people who create it. Society and the sacred are inseparable in Durkheim's view. Durkheim believed that the power of society was understood by people through their creation of sacred symbols. In technologically simple societies a totem is an object in the natural world collectively defined as sacred. Ritual behavior with the totem provided unity for the community. Durkheim pointed out three major functions of religion: social cohesion, social control, and providing meaning and purpose. A weakness in the structural-functional view is that it downplays the dysfunctions of religion, particularly its role in producing destructive social conflict. Constructing the Sacred: Symbolic-Interaction Analysis Peter Berger, operating from the symbolic-interaction view, theorized that religion is a socially constructed reality much as the family and the economy are. The sacred can provide security and permanence for society as long as society's members do not recognize the socially constructed character of religion. Inequality and Religion: Social-Conflict Analysis The social-conflict view of religion draws attention to the social ills perpetuated by the existence of religion. Karl Marx theorized that the powerful in society benefit by religion because it defines the present society as morally just. Advocates of this view also argue that major world religions support patriarchy. RELIGION AND SOCIAL CHANGE Max Weber: Protestantism and Capitalism According to Max Weber, religion is not merely the conservative force as portrayed in the work of Karl Marx. Rather, Weber saw religion as a force which can promote dramatic social change. Weber's work points out that industrial capitalism in Europe paralleled the rise of Calvinism. The doctrine of predestination, central to this religion, was a key variable in causing people to seek material success as a sign that God favored them. Weber believed that the "spirit of capitalism" emerged from the protestant "work ethic." Liberation Theology Liberation theology is a fusion of Christian principles with political activism, often Marxist in character. Adherents believe that as a matter of faith and justice greater social equality must be promoted. TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATION Church and Sect A church is a formal religious organization well integrated into the larger society. Two types of church organizations are the ecclesia--a church that is formally allied with the state--and a denomination --a church, independent of the state, that accepts religious pluralism. A sect, is a type of religious organization that stands apart from the larger society. Sects tend to lack the formal organization of a church. Leaders are often those people who manifest charisma--or extraordinary personal qualities that can turn an audience into followers. Proselytizing is an attempt to obtain new members through conversion, a personal transformation resulting from new religious beliefs. Sects tend to reject the established society. Sects tend to attract disadvantaged people. Cult A cult is a religious organization that is substantially outside the cultural traditions of a society. It represents something almost completely new. Cults often arise from the diffusion of religious ideas cross-culturally. They tend to be more extreme than sects, requiring members to change their entire lifestyle and self-concepts. RELIGION IN HISTORY Religion in Preindustrial Societies Archaeological research suggests religious ritual has existed for at least 40,000 years. Among hunting and gathering societies religion typically takes the form of animism, or the belief that elements of the natural world are conscious life forms that affect humanity. In such cultures, a shaman, or religious leader, may be recognized, however, there are no full-time, specialized religious leaders. Religion in Industrial Societies With industrialization, science begins as a force which diminishes the scope of religious power and thinking. But, science cannot answer certain fundamental questions related to the spiritual dimension of human existence. WORLD RELIGIONS The diversity of religious expression is almost as wide-ranging as the diversity of culture itself. However, six of the world's religions claim some 4 billion believers--almost three-fourths of humanity. Christianity Christianity is the world's most widespread religion with 2 billion followers. Christianity is an example of monotheism, or the belief in a single divine power. By contrast, polytheism is a belief in many gods. Christianity has a unique vision of the Supreme Being as a sacred Trinity. Over the centuries there have been several divisions within Christianity: each, however, shares the belief that Jesus of Nazareth was sent by God to provide salvation. Islam Islam is the world's second most widespread religion with 1.1 billion followers, called Muslims. This religion is based on the life of Muhammad, born in Mecca in 570. He is seen as a prophet, not a divine being; Allah is the God of Islam. Islam means "submission" and "peace." While divisions within Islam exist, all Muslims accept the five pillars of Islam: recognition of Allah as the one true God and Muhammad as God's messenger, ritual prayer, giving alms to the poor, regular fasting, and making at least one pilgrimage to Mecca. Judaism Like Confucianism, Judaism is historical in focus. The critical event in Jewish history is the Exodus from Egypt in the thirteenth century B.C.E. After this event, Judaism became monotheistic. The covenant, a special relationship with God, is a distintive element of this religion. The Torah, or first five books of the Bible, is of special importance for Jews. Judaism emphasizes moral behavior in this world as opposed to being concerned with salvation. There are divided interpretations of doctrine, but a keen awareness of their cultural history and historical endurance of prejudice and discrimination (anti-Semitism) are central to the Jewish understanding of their religious faith. There are only 14 million Jews worldwide. Hinduism Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world, originating in the Indus River Valley about 4,500 years ago. There are some 793 million followers of Hinduism. Hinduism and Indian society are closely fused, so unlike Islam and Christianity, it is not easily diffused. Also, it is not linked to the life of one person. Therefore, beliefs and practices vary greatly. All Hindus generally believe that a force confronts all people with moral responsibility termed dharma. Karma, a belief in the spiritual progress of a peron's soul and involving reincarnation, is also a fundamental aspect of this religion. Hinduism is neither monotheistic nor polytheistic. Buddhism Buddhism emerged in India about 2,500 years ago. Siddhartha Gautama was its founder. After years of travel and meditation he reached bodhi, or enlightenment. Followers began spreading his teaching, the dhamma. Buddhists see existence as suffering and reject the idea of wealth as a solution to human problems. Reincarnation is also a belief in this religion. The answer to world problems lies in personal transformation toward a spiritual existence. Confucianism Confucianism was the official religion of China from 200 B.C.E. until the beginning of this century. This religion was shaped by K'ung Fu-Tzu (Confucius) who lived in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. This religion is based on the concept of the jen, or humaneness. Lacking a clear concept of the sacred, it is more a disciplined way of life than a religion. Religion: East and West Two general differences between the belief systems that predominate in Eastern and Western societies are identiifed. First, Western religions are typically deity-based, with a clear focus on God. Eastern religions tend to be more life ethical codes, with less clear-cut distinctions between the sacred and the secular. Second, the operational unit of Western religious organization is the congregation, with people attending a specific place of worship with others. In the East, religious organization is more broadly tied to culture itself. RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES Religious Affiliation About 90 percent of U.S. adults identify with a specific religion. Religiosity Religiosity is the importance of religion in a person's life. Religion and Social Stratification Social Class Jews, Episcopalians, and Presbyterians have the highest social class standing in our society. Catholics, Lutherans, and Baptists are more representative of the lower social strata.RELIGION IN A CHANGING SOCIETY Secularization An important and controversial pattern of social change is secularization, or the historical decline in the importance of the supernatural and the sacred. Advances in science have significantly influenced our relationship with the world of ideas and the world of nature. Yet, religion is still an important part of society and a very significant part of many people's lives. Civil Religion Secularization has brought about a decline in certain traditional religious beliefs, but has also affected the advancement of new forms. Civil religion, a quasi-religious loyalty binding individuals in a basically secular society, is strong in the U.S. For example, our flag serves as a sacred symbol of national identity. Religious Revival Membership in established religions may be declining; however, membership in other religious organizations is increasing. The human need for security seems to always give rise to some form of religious activity and commitment. Religious Fundamentalism Fundamentalism, or a conservative religious doctrine that opposes intellectualism and worldly accommodation in favor of restoring traditional, other-worldly spirituality, has been increasing in the U.S. over the last decade or so. Five characteristics identity Christian fundamentalists: the literal interpretation of Scripture, less tolerance for religious diversity, an emphasis on personal experience of religion, an opposition to secular humanism, and an endorsement of conservative political goals. Fundamentalists have heavily used the mass media, particularly television and radio through electronic churches, to attract and maintain followers. The Electronic Church About 5 percent of the U.S. population are regular viewers of televangelists, with 20 percent watching at least once a week. Recently, computer technology is being used by religious organizations to spread their message. LOOKING AHEAD: RRELIGION IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Science, it seems, is both unable to answer certain questions, and with tremendous leaps of technological advances in recent history, increases our anxiety about our future. |
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